An exceptional and massive zitan 'dragon' compound cabinet, Qing dynasty, Kangxi period | 清康熙 御製紫檀雲龍紋雙聯頂箱櫃

Top left cabinet:

Collection of Serge Sandberg (1879-1981), acquired before 1942 according to the collector's correspondence, and thence in the family by descent.

Sotheby’s Paris, 12th June 2018, lot 144.

Top right cabinet:

A French private collection.

Christie's Paris, 12th June 2019, lot 76.

Main cabinet:

A French private collection.

Sotheby's Paris, 15th December 2011, lot 35.

頂箱（圖左）：

Serge Sandberg（1879-1981）收藏，據藏家信札於1942年前購入，此後家族傳承

巴黎蘇富比2018年6月12日，編號144

頂箱（圖右）：

法國私人收藏

巴黎佳士得2019年6月12日，編號76

主櫃：

法國私人收藏

巴黎蘇富比2011年12月15日，編號35

Quest for Balance and Harmony: 

An Early Qing Dynasty Imperial Zitan ‘Dragon’ Compound Cabinet 

Dr Hajni Elias 

Introduction

Qing dynasty (1644 - 1911) furnishings represent utilitarian artefacts that were made to appeal to the senses through display as well as being functional in their use. They were the zhangwu 長物 or luxuries of their time that advertised the status of the owner as well as providing an opportunity to articulate a worldview constructed around this status.^[1] Referred to by art historians as the ‘politics of taste’, from the late 17th century onwards, we see an unprecedented demand for zhangwu items that stimulated originality in design and the creation of decorative effects that exploited artisans’ ingenuity and craftsmanship to the full. In a courtly setting, the function and meaning of zhangwu objects was closely linked to the aesthetic taste and needs of their commissioner - the emperor. Imperial taste introduced a new vocabulary to interior design that was practical yet opulent. Designs had the attributes of successful functional considerations that met well with Imperial court, office, residence and leisure purposes; they were also conceptual achievements that embodied the emperor’s ambition to rule all under Heaven.^[2]

The present zitan wood compound cabinet, with its impressive carving of the ‘dragons chasing flaming pearls’ motif illustrates the procurement of the exquisite on Imperial command. The different components that complete this magnificent (over three metres high and two metres wide) piece of furniture had been separated but are now happily re-united in their original form. Furnishings of this type, in particular those that employed images of the dragon, were conceived to elevate Imperial presence and power. Such a tour de force object could only be designed and crafted by skilled artisans employed by the Muzuo 木作 or Wood Workshop, one of the Palace Workshops (Zaobanchu 造辦處) that operated under the command of the Imperial Household Department (Neiwufu 內務府) of the Qing court.   

The cabinet with its pictorial composition of eight pairs of sinuous dragons, each pair chasing a flaming pearl amongst auspicious ruyi 如意 form clouds above turbulent waves interspersed with bajixiang 八吉祥 symbols and floral sprays, may appear familiar from a number of examples from the 18th century. A well known Imperial piece is a zitan cabinet of different structure but also decorated with the theme of dragons chasing flaming pearls amongst clouds, pictured in situ in the bedroom behind the Hall of Mental Cultivation (Yangxin Dian 養心殿) and illustrated in The Complete Collection of Treasures of the Palace Museum. Furniture of the Ming and Qing Dynasties (II), Hong Kong, 2002, pl. 249 (Fig. 1). The cabinet was built to fit the hall which became the main residence of the Yongzheng Emperor (r. 1722 - 1735) and was used by his successors subsequently. While the Yangxin Dian cabinet is also the product of the Wood Workshop, there is noticeable stylistic variation in the depiction of the dragons and in the emphasis of the compositions that reflect the evolving artistic styles and preferences of their respective periods. The present compound cabinet likely predates the Yangxin Dian example, as well as other known Imperial zitan wood furniture with the dragon design, such as the throne dated to the reign of the Qianlong Emperor (r. 1736 -1795) sold in these rooms, 8th October 2009, lot 1645 (Fig. 2). In fact, it may be suggested that we are looking at an important artistic endeavour that served as a blue-print for subsequent zitan wood furnishings. The dragon decoration displays stylistic and aesthetic elements attributable to the influence of the 17th century master designer Liu Yuan 劉源 (c. 1641- c. 1691), whose compositions of this mythological beast are well known from a number of artefacts which will be examined below.

Following a brief introduction of the historical context and cultural climate that set the stage for the production of Imperial furnishing in the early Qing dynasty (1644 - 1911), we shall look at Liu Yuan’s influence and legacy on dragon designs, in particular highlighting the symbolism associated with the ‘dragon chasing the flaming pearl’ motif, the use of zitan wood for their production and its craftsmanship, and the cabinet’s significance in its courtly environment and setting. 

Historical Context and Liu Yuan

As noted by the art historian Jonathan Hay, decoration was a conspicuous reminder of the emperor’s power over his subjects’ labour and talents. It was under Kangxi’s reign (r. 1661- 1722) that a distinctive Qing Imperial approach to art and decoration was created, based on the Ming dynasty (1368 -1644) model but with a new Manchu approach to taste and sensibility.^[3] The production of wares in the Imperial Palace Workshop, located within the confines of the Forbidden City, was a Qing innovation in the creation, control and execution of artefacts made to a specific taste. In this setting, we see the emergence of teams of supervisor-designers or ‘taste makers’ who ensured that artisans employed by the Qing court from various parts the Empire, in particular those from the furniture and jade workshops located in the southern cities of Guangdong and Suzhou, strictly adhered to Imperial instructions and orders. 

Liu Yuan was one of those master artisans whose influence on the design and creation of Kangxi period artefacts cannot be underestimated. From his biography in the Qingshigao 清史稿, the official history of the Qing dynasty, we know that he was born into a Hanjun 漢軍 bannerman family from the Bordered Red Banner domicile in Xiangfu, Henan province.^[4] He was a versatile artist, an accomplished painter and calligrapher, a designer of Imperial porcelain wares, a maker of ink cakes and Imperial seals, and an inspired carver of ink-stones, wood and lacquerware. Dorothy Ko describes him as a key figure in the development of an evolving and eclectic Qing Imperial style that embodied the materialist mandate and personal taste of the Kangxi Emperor and the skills of the craftsmen in his service.^[5] 

Liu started his career as an artisan in Suzhou where much of the late Ming and early Qing specialised workshops with their master craftsmen were concentrated. He subsequently enrolled as a student at the National University in Beijing, and after passing his examination took on various bureaucratic posts in Guangxi and Anhui provinces. Around 1679, when he was dismissed from his position as a tax commissioner at the Wushu Customs Office in Anhui, he was called back to Beijing to serve in the Inner Court under the personal service of the Kangxi Emperor.^[6] Throughout his career Liu presented several hundred porcelain designs that incorporated his own innovative ideas. It is said that his output surpassed the wares of the former Ming dynasty.^[7] Peter Lam notes how Liu must have started designing for the Imperial kilns at Jingdezhen from around 1680 when four supervisors were sent from the court to oversee a large-scale porcelain production that would last until 1688.^[8] By then, Liu’s position as a master designer was well established with wares traditionally attributed to Zang Yingxuan 臧應選, sent to Jingdezhen in 1681 as one of the supervisors, in fact conceived by Liu himself.^[9]      

One of Liu’s major contributions to early Qing design is the dragon motif. A blue and white Kangxi vase in the collection of the Palace Museum, painted with two anthropomorphic dragons skilfully placed within the contours of the vase as if they inhabit the entire object rather than just its surface, is a quintessential Liu design (Fig. 3). Liu derived his inspiration from Chen Rong’s 陳容 (fl. 1235 - 1262) Nine Dragon scroll painting (1244), but made the beast more playful and contemporary to suit Qing Imperial taste. While there has been no systematic attempt to identify all of Liu’s dragon pieces, the linear S-form shape of the two creatures on the vase is consistent with those found on Liu’s woodblock illustrations.^[10]

With its ability to move freely through air and water, dragons symbolised protection and power, and in the Imperial context they embodied the authority of the Son of Heaven. In art, front facing dragons became the image of Imperial authority from the Ming dynasty onwards, while dragons depicted cavorting amongst clouds playfully chasing a round luminescent flaming pearl has an even earlier history. The image of the pearl, representing a celestial luminary which the dragon is trying to catch and tame, already appears in the Tang dynasty (618 - 907). The earliest known example of two confronting dragons with a flaming pearl between them was found on the pommel of a sword dated to 600 C.E. excavated from an Imperial tomb at Luoyang, Henan province. Archaeologists believe that the sword was probably fashioned by Chinese craftsmen but its ring-pommel and scabbard mounts derived directly from swords developed by Steppe tribes from the Scythian region in Central Asia.^[11]     

As mentioned earlier, Liu was a talented craftsman and designer and amongst his carvings, possibly the most famous and significant artefact for the purposes of our discussion here is the Duan Luminous Dragons (Longguang 龍光) ink-stone that bears his signature and the date of 1679, when Liu presented the stone as a personal tribute to the Kangxi Emperor (Fig. 4). The two beasts on the stone, representing an elder and a younger dragon, are fluid, form-shifting creatures, with a theatrical playful sense of presence and motion. Liu’s dragons convey power and strength in a most natural fashion, quite the opposite from the majestic but somewhat formulaic dragons associated with later, in particular Qianlong period examples, as seen on the zitan throne mentioned earlier or on a red lacquer screen included in the Royal Academy of Arts exhibition and illustrated in Evelyn Rawski and Jessica Rawson eds., China: The Three Emperors 1662-1795, London, pl. 17 (Fig. 5). Qianlong dragons appear imposing with a heightened sense of opulence. They are positioned against an almost excessively sumptuous background of rich complexity and visual impact but have developed in form from the more energetic and fluid shape of the earlier Qing examples.     

The two dragons on the Luminous Dragons ink-stone are captured in the midst of chasing three gold nuggets. They are muscular creatures with horns hovering over thick flying manes, their bodies covered in overlapping scales that appear to slither in rhythm with the twists and turns of the tails. A strong sense of motion in the composition is created by the S-shaped curvature of the beasts’ bodies that glide across swirling clouds and crashing waves. Dynamism is also generated by the carving technique that brings the dragons from the core of the stone to the surface instead of just making it appear on the object.^[12] This is not dissimilar to what we see on the Kangxi vase mentioned above where the flat surface is skilfully transformed into a three-dimensional space thanks to Liu’s inspired design. When considering the dragons on the present cabinet they are likewise dominated by muscular facial features with prominent square-form jaws depicted en-face or in three-quarter profile. The treatment of the heads and bodies, as the dragons swirl in and out of the clouds and waters, display remarkable expertise applied to the zitan wood, bringing the composition to life and conveying a sense of three dimensional space on the two dimensional surface of the cabinet.

Another example of Liu’s dragon may be seen on an ink-cake titled Virtuous Power of Dragon (Longde 龍德) in the collection of the Palace Museum in Beijing (Fig. 6). The ink-cake is decorated with a large gilded dragon, its head and claws occupying the upper half of the cake with its sinuous body climbing over the sides and the back, and a smaller gilded dragon frolicking in the lower half. Between the two creatures are a representation of a gilded half-pearl and an actual pearl encrusted in the body of the cake.^[13] This is another impressive piece of three-dimensional carving with Liu’s dragons making a strong and lively statement.

As we can see, the dragons on the present cabinet display characteristics associated with Liu’s works. They are expertly carved swirling in and out of the clouds in continuous movement with an acute sense of spirit and power. In their forms, style and workmanship they convey a naturalism that adheres to more traditional and classical representations of dragons in Chinese art. Whether we are looking at an elder or a younger beast, a ferocious front-facing soaring or a writhing one, they are all depicted with a sense of spirited freedom and fluidity not dissimilar to what we see in Liu’s compositions. There are sixteen dragons in total on the cabinet, an auspicious number associated with harmony and perfect balance between Heaven and Earth. While dragons stand for the emperor with the pearl symbolising wisdom and truth, the overall message conveyed in the act of the beast chasing the pearl embodies the pursuit of knowledge and higher understanding in a perfectly balanced universe. This message would have resonated with the Kangxi Emperor who himself was an avid pursuer of knowledge and learning. Apart from being a man of letters, he had deep interest in the sciences and how the universe worked.^[14] Universal or cosmic balance was not merely of ritual importance to him but was a matter of the principles of perfection. The titles Longguang and Longde, given to the ink-stone and ink-cake respectively by Liu, reference the qualities of guang 光 and de 德, two key concepts of moral conducts pursued by Kangxi throughout his rulership. Guang is associated with brightness or illumination and symbolises essential guiding qualities of virtue, wisdom and moral integrity. De is the quintessential concept of virtue and moral character. The two together embody the importance of moral conduct and righteousness that brings balance and harmony to one’s rule. The association of the dragons on the cabinet itself with these moral precepts would have been apparent to the makers and viewers of the piece and, of course, the Kangxi Emperor himself.

Material and Craftsmanship

The cabinet is made in the rare and hence most prized zitan wood, available only to the master craftsmen employed in the Palace Workshop. Historically, zitan was primarily grown in southern India and southeast Asia, with a very small quantity known from the southern provinces of present-day Guangxi, Guangdong and Jiangxi in China. Zhou Mo, in his research on the variety of zitan used for Chinese furniture suggests that two types were used at the Qing court, one known as the ‘small leaf zitan’  (pterocarpus santalinus) which has a light floral fragrance and ages to a deep reddish-purple or purple-black tone and grows to a smaller size, and its relative, the ‘large leaf zitan’ (dalbergia luovelii), which is a larger tree with lesser fragrance, but ages to a similar purple-black tone.^[15] Both types were appreciated for their jade-like silky texture, fine and dense grain, and their deep lustre, making them the favoured timber of the Qing court with no expense spared in acquiring it. From Imperial records we know that during Qianlong’s reign in particular, the Palace Workshop used over 290,000 kgs of zitan, most of which had to be imported from overseas due to its almost complete extinction in China. The wood’s long growth period, limited availability and high demand primarily from the Imperial court, led to its excessive felling and eventual disappearance by the early 18th century. 

Furniture production in the Wood Workshop strictly adhered to the emperor’s taste, with a preference for large and weighty pieces, all of which conveyed authority while, at the same time, being a showcase for the high standards of workmanship achieved at court. By and large, Qing imperial furniture became increasingly grander than its predecessors, with more complex and detailed decoration. It is worth noting that different wood types were rarely mixed and there was a tendency to leave it unpainted to enhance the natural beauty of the material. Decoration was carefully considered, and as noted by Zhang Xiaoming, imperial works used various carving techniques, with often more than four-fifths of the surface of each piece carved with exquisite detail.^[16] Pieces were primarily made with the use of the mortise-and-tenon technique, which joins various components together without any fasteners or glue. Different pieces were cut out and made to interlock with a perfect fit, and allowed to naturally expand and contract in reaction to humidity in the air. This technique, already in use as early as the Han dynasty (206 BCE - 220 CE) in building construction, was perfected and reached its peak during the early Qing period when it was implemented on both furnishings and buildings. It is also interesting to note that the dimensions of the present compound cabinet, being over three metres in height and two metres in width, indicate its use in a hall or chamber of considerable height. 

Imperial Significance

As mentioned earlier, items of Imperial furnishing were treasured artefacts that served a dual purpose: that of being a beautiful object made for appreciation and also having the utilitarian function in its setting. They reflect the sumptuous nature of Imperial architecture and interiors. The placing of every piece of furniture and its accompanying furnishings was carried out with strict adherence to courtly rules and regulations, much of it based on complex traditional Chinese geomantic principles.^[17] Similar to screens that served as space dividers in the private quarters of the emperor, cabinets also functioned as free-standing pictorial artefacts that occupied and divided a three-dimensional space.^[18] Hay in his examination of Imperial furnishing mentions how they had the power to provide a magnificent pictorial illusion and as such take on the function of ‘object landscapes’.^[19] He also notes that objects ‘had an inbuilt capacity, not only to affect beholders directly, but also to influence them indirectly through their contributions to the scenic arrangements within which they found a place’.^[20] 

We can only speculate how and where the present cabinet was deployed. Given that the Yangxin Dian cabinet was made for the private residence of the Yongzheng Emperor, it is likely that the present cabinet was also for personal use. The theme of sixteen dragons chasing flaming pearls is a personal one that would have resonated with the emperor’s self image as a seeker of wisdom and his wish for harmony and balance in his rule over the Empire. What is also certain is that the cabinet’s manufacture set new standards that became the hallmark of High Qing court art. 

Illustration Captions 

Fig. 1

Zitan cabinet decorated with dragon and cloud motif located in the bedroom behind the Hall of Mental Cultivation (Yangxin Dian 養心殿). Qing dynasty (1644-1911). Place Museum, Beijing.

Fig. 2

Zitan throne decorated with dragon and cloud motif. Qianlong period (r. 1736 - 1795), Qing dynasty (1644 - 1911). Private Collection. 

Fig. 3

Blue and white vase with dragon motif. Kangxi mark and period (1622 - 1722), Jingdezhen porcelain. Palace Museum, Beijing. 

Fig. 4

Liu Yuan (c. 1641- c. 1691), Luminous Dragons ink-stone, 1679. Palace Museum, Beijing.

Fig. 5

Zitan wood and red lacquer screen with the dragon and cloud motif. Qianlong period (r. 1736 - 1795), Qing dynasty (1644 - 1911). Palace Museum, Beijing.

Fig. 6

Liu Yuan (c. 1641- c. 1691), Virtuous Power of Dragon ink-cake. Palace Museum, Beijing.

Footnotes

^[1] Hay, Jonathan (2010). Sensuous Surfaces. The Decorative Object in Early Modern China (Chicago: Chicago University Press), 21.

^[2] Hay (2010), 58. 

^[3] Hay (2010), 35-6. 

^[4] Ko, Dorothy (2017). The Social Life of Inkstones (Seattle and London: Washington University Press), 24-30.

^[5] Ko (2017), 20.

^[6] Lam, Peter (2021). ‘Imperial Kangxi Porcelain from the Dawentang Collection,’ Arts of Asia Spring accessed https://artsofasia.com/imperial-kangxi-porcelain-from-the-dawentang-collection-2. See also Ko (2017), 20-21, on the biography of Liu. 

^[7] Lam (2021). 

^[8] Lam (2021). 

^[9] Lam (2021). 

^[10] Hay (2010), 155. 

^[11] Nickel, Helmut (1991). ‘The Dragon and Pearl’ Metropolitan Museum Journal 26, 139.

^[12] Ko (2017), 25. 

^[13] Ko (2017), 28. 

^[14] Krahl, Regina (2005). ‘The Kangxi Emperor: Horseman, Man of Letters, Man of Science,’ in Evelyn S. Rawsky and Jessica Rawson eds., China: The Three Emperors 1662-1795 (London: Royal Academy of Arts), 210-214.

^[15] Zhou Mo周默 (2004). ‘Ming Qing jiaju de caizhi yanjiu yu jianding – zitan 明清家具的材質研究于鑑定 - 紫檀,’ Shoucangjia, part 2, 53-54.

^[16] Zhang Xiaoming (2009). Chinese Furniture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 24. 

^[17] Rawski, Evelyn S. and Rawson, Jessica (eds.) (2005). China: The Three Emperors 1662-1795 (London: Royal Academy of Arts), 391.

^[18] Wu Hung (1996). The Double Screen (London: Reaktion Books),16.

^[19] Hay (2010), 309.

^[20] Hay (2010), 341. 

尋求平衡與和諧：清早期 御製紫檀雲龍紋雙聯頂箱櫃

薛好佩博士

引言

清代家具乃實用的藝術品，旨在通過陳設和實用功能吸引人們的感官。它們既是長物，又是奢侈品，既表明了主人的地位，也提供了一個機會，讓他們根據自己的身份建構世界觀。藝術史學家稱之為「品味的政治」，從17世紀後期開始，我們見證了市場前所未有的需求，這激發了匠心巧運以及極具裝飾效果的設計，充分發揮了工匠的聰明才智和手藝。在宮廷環境中，長物的功能和含義與皇帝的審美品味和需求密切相關。皇家品味為室內設計引入了一種實用而華麗的全新語匯：設計既具有卓越的功能性考量，可以滿足宮廷內辦公及休閒等各種需求；同時也是一種概念的達成，體現了皇帝統治天下的野心。

此件紫檀雙聯頂箱櫃面板以高浮雕深刻的雲龍戲珠紋飾，展示了皇家欽命造就之卓絕精工。此件鉅構高近一丈，寬逾六尺，上下雖經紕離，如今完璧令人稱慶。此類裝飾龍紋的鉅構，旨在提升皇家威權，唯有內務府造辦處木作最頂尖的熟練工匠才能設計和製作。

此櫃裝飾八條身形矯健的戲珠游龍，填以雲海波濤、海水山崖，間以八吉祥符號及如意花卉，這可能會讓人想起一些十八世紀的作品。養心殿西次間後寢殿陳設有一組三櫃合一的紫檀雙聯頂箱櫃，構造略微不同，紋飾相似，亦飾有穿雲戲珠龍紋，見《故宮博物院藏文物全集明清家具（二） 》，香港，2002年，編號249（圖1）。此櫃尺寸專為養心殿而作，養心殿是雍正皇帝（1722 - 1735在位）的主要居所，後來也被他的繼任者使用。雖然養心殿的雲龍櫃也是造辦處木作的產物，但從龍紋風格和構圖重點可以明顯看到不同時期的藝術風格和偏好。本件拍品可能早於養心殿之例，也早於其他已知的御製龍紋紫檀家具，如乾隆皇帝（1736 -1795在位）的紫檀寶座，2009年10月8日售於香港蘇富比，拍品1645（圖2）。事實上，此件拍品可能是清宮家具在早期的一個重要藝術嘗試，作為後來紫檀家具的藍本。本件頂箱櫃所飾龍紋明顯受到康熙時期劉源（約1641-約1691）作品的影響，他對龍紋的演繹在諸多名器上廣為人知，下文會進行詳細解讀。

在簡要介紹了清早期皇家家具生產的歷史背景和文化氛圍之後，我們將研究劉源對龍紋設計的影響和傳承，特別探討戲珠龍紋相關的象徵意義，以及使用紫檀器作和其工藝的重要性，乃至立櫃在宮廷陳設中的重要地位。

歷史背景和劉源

藝術史學者喬迅指出，皇帝需要用特別的裝飾來時刻提示自己擁有臣民的勞動和才華結晶。康熙皇帝在位期間（1661-1722年），基於明制，融入滿族審美，創建了一種獨特的清朝皇家藝術和裝飾方式。皇家作坊位於紫禁城內，專門製作皇帝特定品味的工藝品，為清代首創。在這個環境下，我們看到了一支由監工或「品味製造者」組成的團隊，他們確保被清宮僱傭的各地工匠，特別是來自廣東和蘇州的家具和玉石作坊的匠人，嚴格遵守皇家的指示和命令。

劉源對康熙時期的內廷藝術設計和創作影響深遠。從《清史稿》的傳記中，我們得知他出生於河南省祥符的漢軍旗人家庭。他是一位多才多藝的藝術家，是一位成就斐然的畫家和書法家，是御瓷的設計師，是御墨和璽印的製作者，是硯臺、木器和漆器的雕刻家。高彥頤將他描述為清代皇室風格發展的關鍵人物，該風格體現了康熙皇帝的物質主張和個人品味，以及他治下的工匠技能。

劉源在蘇州開始從事藝術創作，那裡集中了許多明末清初的專業作坊和大師級匠人。及後官至官刑部主事，供奉內廷，監督蕪湖、九江兩關。大約在1679年，他被解除了在安徽蕪湖海關的職務回京，從此在內廷服務。在他的職業生涯中，劉源提出了數百種瓷器設計，融入了他自己的創新思想，藝超前朝。林業強指出，劉源大約從1680年開始為景德鎮御窯廠設計瓷器，當時皇室派出四名督陶官，監督一項大規模的瓷器生產，這次燒造一直持續到1688年。那時劉源作為大師級設計師的地位已經得到了確認，傳統上被認為是臧應選在1681年督陶時期的作品，實則出自劉源手筆。

劉源對清早期設計的主要貢獻之一即是龍紋。故宮博物館藏一件康熙青花瓶，上繪升龍二條，行走如人形，氣勢充盈全瓶，而非僅僅浮於表面，此是劉源的典型設計（圖3 ）。劉源從陳容（1235 -1262年）的《九龍圖》（1244年）中得到靈感，然而使之更為生動寫實，以符合清代皇室審美。雖然還沒有學者試圖系統地識別出劉源所有的龍紋作品，但此類瓷器所繪龍紋的S形狀與劉源印刷作品上的龍紋相吻合。

龍上天入水、暢遊天地，象徵權力和護佑，在皇權的語境中，龍體現了天子的權威。在藝術中，正面的龍從明朝開始就成為皇權的象徵，而龍穿雲戲珠的形象則有更早的歷史。龍追逐吞吐火龍珠，後者代表天體的光芒，這一形象唐朝（618 - 907年）便已出現。二龍戲珠最早實例見於河南洛陽一皇家墓葬中出土一劍，此劍劍首便裝飾此紋樣，年代可追溯到公元600年。考古學家認為這把劍可能是由中國工匠製作的，但它的環形劍首和劍鞘裝飾則來源於中亞斯基泰地區的草原部落。

如前所述，劉氏是一位才華橫溢的工匠和設計師。在他的雕刻作品中，最為著名的是他獻給康熙帝的一方綠端硯，上有他的署款及年款（公元1679年），此硯對我們的討論別具意義。劉氏在那年將此方硯台作為為個人貢品獻給了康熙皇帝（圖4）。硯額雕刻一老一少二龍，雲籠霧繞，身形矯健，極具戲劇張力。劉氏的龍充滿力量與活力，這種自然的表現方式與後期的龍紋，特別是乾隆時期的龍紋，形態完全相反，後者雖然尊貴，但有些程式化， 比如前文提到的紫檀寶座上或皇家藝術學院展覽中的紅漆屏風上所見，見 Evelyn Rawski 及羅森編，《盛世華章》，倫敦，圖版17（圖5）。乾隆時期的龍紋莊重、奢華，背景華麗複雜，極具視覺衝擊力，其形態已經從清早期的靈動和修長發展為更加壯碩的形象。

此方硯台雕刻二龍追逐三塊碎金，二龍肌肉發達，龍角後伏，鱗爪飛揚，身形矯健翻轉形成S形曲線，穿行於濃雲驚濤，栩栩如生。雕刻層次豐富，用刀深峻靈動，由裡至表層層而出。這與我們在上文提到的康熙瓷瓶上所見如出一轍，瓷器的平面通過劉氏的巧妙設計被巧妙地轉化為立體空間。本件紫檀立櫃所雕龍紋亦是同樣手法，以正面或三分之四側面的方式突出龍面部的方形下顎，龍身扭動矯健，穿雲過海，將二維平面轉變為三維空間。

劉氏另一件典型龍紋作品可以參考北京故宮博物館收藏的「龍德」墨（圖6）。墨模印一上一下，一大一小两條塗金龍紋，大者頭部和爪子佔據墨條上半部分，身體蜿蜒盤旋過墨條的邊緣和背面，小者嬉戲於右下角。二龍之間有一塗金火龍珠並且嵌有一粒東珠。此件御墨體量不大，然而龍紋立體生動，令人印象深刻。

由此我們可以看到此櫃上的龍紋身上的劉源龍紋的特點，龍穿行在繁複精巧的雲濤之中，展現了獨特的精神和力量。在形態、風格和工藝中，它們表達了一種自然主義，這符合中國藝術中對龍更為傳統和經典的表現。無論我們看的是一條蒼龍還是一條幼龍，一條對著我們咆哮的龍還是一條翻騰的龍，它們展現出一種靈動、自由、流暢的形態，與劉氏作品中所見無異。此件頂箱櫃上共有十六條龍，十六亦是一個吉祥的數字，象徵著天地和諧和完美平衡。龍代表著皇帝，龍珠象徵著智慧和真理，整個場景中龍戲珠的行為代表著在一個完美平衡的宇宙中對知識和天理的追求。這與康熙皇帝的追求產生共鳴，他自己就是一個熱衷於知識和學習的人。康熙帝不僅是一位文士，也對科學和宇宙運行的方式也深感興趣。宇宙或宇宙的平衡對他來說不僅帶有一種儀式上的重要性，而是完美原則性問題。劉氏給硯和墨分別起名「龍光」和「龍德」，引用了「光」和「德」這兩個康熙在他的統治期間追求的道德準則。光與光明正大，象徵著美德、智慧和道德正直的基本品質。德是美德和道德品質的本質概念。這兩者一起體現了道德行為和正義的重要性，使得天子治下的世界平衡且和諧。對於製作者和觀者，當然還有康熙皇帝本人，都清楚知道此櫃之龍紋與這些道德原則緊密相關。

材料和工藝

此櫥櫃由珍罕的紫檀製成，唯造詣極高的皇家工匠方能使用。歷史上，紫檀主要生長於南印度和東南亞，亦有少量生長於中國廣西、廣東和江西等南部省份。周默於其紫檀與中國家具研究中指出，清朝宮廷使用了兩種紫檀木，一種是小葉紫檀（pterocarpus santalinus），有淡淡的花香，隨著時間的推移會變成深紅紫色或紫黑色，成熟時體型較小。另一種是大葉紫檀（dalbergia luovelii），體型更大，香氣更淡，顏色也會變成類似前者的紫黑色。兩種紫檀木都因其如玉般的細膩質地，細密的紋理和锃亮的光澤而受人青睞，不惜費重金求之。乾隆年間，造辦處共計使用紫檀近三十萬公斤，然而紫檀生長週期漫長，數量稀少，加上需求極大，以至十八世紀初期紫檀幾乎從中國境內絕跡，大部分必須從海外進口。

造辦處木作嚴格遵循皇帝的品味，偏好大件敦實的家具，不僅體現皇威浩蕩，也展現出皇家作坊的高超技藝，此種好尚廣泛應用於家具和建築物上。總括來說，清朝皇家用具比前朝更宏偉，裝飾也更繁複。值得注意的是，不同木材少有混用，且不髹漆以突顯其自然美感。張曉明指出，御製家具善用不同雕刻技術，每件作品五分之四的表面被精美雕刻所覆蓋。家具組件多以榫卯結構接連，無需任何釘子和膠水。榫卯技術早在漢朝（公元前206年-220年）就於建築中使用，此類大型家具在清朝早期被廣可能被放置在一個相當高的大廳或房間中。

皇家意義

如前所述，御製家具是被珍視的藝術品，因為它們兼具美感與實用，反映了皇室建築與內飾追求奢華的特質。每一件家具及其附屬品都嚴格遵從宮廷規則放置，大部分基於複雜的中國傳統風水原則。櫥櫃作為直立式藝術品，與寢殿中的屏風類似，起到隔斷和遮蔽空間的作用。喬迅在研究御製家具時提出，此類家具刻有壯麗的圖畫，因此具有「物體景觀」的審美功能。他還指出，物品「具有內化的力量，不僅直接影響觀察著，而且通過景觀佈置間接影響他們。」

後人只能推測現存的櫥櫃如何陳設、何處擺放，考慮到養心殿裏的櫥櫃是為雍正寢殿所造，很有可能本件頂箱櫃也是供皇帝個人使用。十六龍逐珠的題材反映了皇帝追求智慧，希求在治國中實現和諧與平衡。毫無疑問，此件頂箱櫃樹立了新標，成為康乾盛世皇家藝術的里程碑。

^[1] 喬迅（2010），《魅惑的表面：明清的玩好之物》（芝加哥：芝加哥大學出版社），頁21。

^[2] 喬迅（2010），頁58。

^[3] 喬迅（2010），頁35-6。

^[4] 高彥頤（2017），《硯史：清初社會的工匠與士人》（西雅圖及倫敦：華盛頓出版社），頁24-30。

^[5] 高彥頤（2017），頁20。

^[6] 林業強，＜達文堂康熙御瓷＞，《亞洲藝術》，春季期刊，網站，https://artsofasia.com/imperial-kangxi-porcelain-from-the-dawentang-collection-2。同見高彥頤（2017），頁20-21，劉源生平。

^[7] 林業強（2021）。

^[8] 林業強（2021）。

^[9] 林業強（2021）。

^[10] 喬迅（2010），頁155。

^[11] Nickel, Helmut（1991），＜The Dragon and Pearl＞，《大都會博物館雜誌》第26期，頁139。

^[12] 高彥頤（2017），頁25。

^[13] 高彥頤（2017），頁28。

^[14] 康蕊君（2005），＜The Kangxi Emperor: Horseman, Man of Letters, Man of Science＞，收錄於 Evelyn S. Rawsky 及羅森編（2005），《盛世華章》（倫敦：皇家藝術學院），頁210-214。

^[15] 周默（2004），《明清家具的材質研究與鑑定 - 紫檀》，頁53-54。

^[16] 張曉明（2009），《中國家具》（劍橋：劍橋大學出版社），頁24。

^[17] Evelyn S. Rawsky 及羅森編（2005），《盛世華章》（倫敦：皇家藝術學院），頁391。

^[18] 巫鴻（1996），《重屏：中國繪畫的媒體與再現》（倫敦： Reaktion Books），頁16。

^[19] 喬迅（2010），頁309。

^[20] 喬迅（2010），頁341。