An extremely rare imperial rootwood meditation chair, Qing dynasty, Yongzheng - Qianlong period | 清雍正至乾隆 御用藤製天然木禪椅

A European private collection.

歐洲私人收藏

An Extremely rare Rattan-and-Root-Wood Meditation Chair 

Root wood is a general term of wood materials, including various naturally curved or shaped roots (or branches). Some can be used independently for making instruments, others can be cut, chiselled, connected, or spliced to make artefacts. The best work should be a harmonious whole without any traces of artificial modification, as if it naturally grew like this. Common materials include cypress, elm, Lagerstroemia and other roots. This chair is very special as it is made of rattan, reflecting a sense of wild and natural grace.

The Ming Dynasty, especially the Jiaqing and Wanli periods, marked the peak of China's high-seating furniture system, which boasts scientific and ergonomic structures and designs, exquisite craftsmanship, as well as artistic and practical elements. Root wood, as an extraordinary material transcending conventional furniture, was highly favoured by literati. When Gao Lian recorded the leaning table, he mentioned a friend named Wu Popiao who had a unique table: "It has a tree-like wrinkled skin, delicate and twisted surface, a strange three-legged shape, and a smooth, glossy texture as if it were yellow jade. He often brought it along with him during his travels, regarding it as a precious treasure". Wu Popiao, also known as Wu Ruren, with courtesy name Shaojun, sobriquet Popiao Daoren, Lanheshang, Xuantie, Yuantie Daoren, and Chi Songshan Daoshi, was a native of Jinhua, Zhejiang province, was active in the Jiaqing and Wanli period. He had close ties with the literati of Jiangnan such as Gao Lian, Li Rihua, Dong Qichang, Chen Jiru, Wang Luoyu, and Shen Mingchen. He was skillful and adept at making burl wood instruments, "leaning on curved wooden tables and appreciating tree root stoves". In Shen Mingchen's poem Two Quatrains to Wu Shaojun Living in the Floating Dream Hall, it says, "The root wood table is perfect for leaning and singing, eclipsing the red jade dragons ridden by immortals." He explained in the notes that Wu Ruren "often brings a copper pan, a root wood table, and a rattan cane with him", illustrating his deep passion for tree root and burl wood artifacts. Additionally, Wen Zhenheng's Treatise on Superfluous Things mentioned natural tables "made from ancient tree roots". And the calligraphy and painting collector Wang Keyu's Coral Net recorded that Wu Erfu from Yixing had "a natural couch made from ancient tree roots, surprisingly glossy and clear. It's really a treasure of a mountain retreat." Wang even lamented, "It's a pity I can't draw paintings for it!" These records clearly demonstrate the widespread use of root wood furniture among the literary circles of Jiangnan. 

In the Ming dynasty, there was an exceptional example of root wood craftsmanship, known as the legendary root wood "Liuyun" raft-shaped couch (liuyuncha), now housed in the Palace Museum in Beijing. Made from natural tree roots, it is monumental, measuring approximately 320 cm in length, 257 cm in width, and 86.5 cm in height. It bears two seal script characters, "Liuyun" inscribed by the Ming calligrapher Zhao Yiguang. Notably, it also includes annotations by Dong Qichang, Chen Jiru, Ruan Yuan, the Owner of Ban Garden, and Wangyan Hengyong. It is said that the renowned No. One scholar Kang Hai in the Ming dynasty once resided in Yangzhou and built the Kangshan Cottage (Kangshan Caotang). The "Liuyun" raft-shaped couch was originally part of the furnishings in the cottage. In the Qing Dynasty, Jiang Heting purchased it at a high price. When the Qianlong Emperor traveled to Jiangnan, he saw this furniture by the Slender West Lake in Yangzhou and composed a poem titled Enjoying the Garden, which remarked, "Accidentally encounter added pleasure, in a realm of water and bamboo. I can take it to Pengze Lake, and it is celebrated in Yangzhou from now on. It looks like rugged rocks, as the corridor winding. Leaning on the wood couch Liuyun, I joyfully meet the calligrapher Yiguang." The emperor explained in the notes, "The wood couch in the pavilion is of primitive simplicity, carved with two characters 'Liuyun' written by Zhao Yiguang, along with annotations attributed to Dong Qichang and Chen Jiru. Although the annotations are considered to be spurious, it is still quite peasant and enjoyable." These words indicate the emperor's great affection for it. Subsequently, Wanyan Linqing and Ruan Yuan traveled here and discovered an ancient tree root hidden in the dust, revealing faint inscriptions. After "brushing it with water, it was confirmed to be the original Liuyun couch". Ruan Yuan purchased and restored it, then presented it as a gift to Linqing. Linqing detailed this story in his Records of Serendipitous Encounters, accompanied by woodcut illustrations. Two records in this book, Brushing the Raft at Kangshan and A Portrait of Huanwen have pictures of the Liuyun couch. The book once had colored paintings on paper, which are now housed in the National Museum of China. Exquisitely painted, the picture of A Portrait of Huanwen is a vivid portrayal of Liuyun couch.

Root wood furniture was favored by literati and also loved by emperors of the Qing dynasty. The Qianlong Emperor composed poems for Liuyun rafted-shaped couch. The Imperial Workshop made numerous records about the production, repair, presentation, arrangement, and storage of root wood furniture. Examples include thrones, arhat beds, painting tables, zither stands, round tables, armchairs, etc., forming complete sets that predominantly date back to the Yongzheng and Qianlong eras. Furthermore, root wood furniture frequently appeared in court paintings, as evidenced by the root wood incense stand and root wood couch depicted in the painting Portraits of Emperor Yinzhen's Consorts.

The historical documentation from the Canton Furniture Workshop (Guangmuzuo) in the fifth month of the sixteenth year of Qianlong's reign provides evidence of the production of root wood furniture by the esteemed Imperial Workshop. The records contain not only modifications or reconstructions of tree-root elm throne bed, root wood thrones, root wood arhat thrones, natural round incense stands, and Yunqiu root wood rectangular tables, but also the production of root wood embroidered stools and chairs. The production involves alterations such as removing armrests or backrests, adding embellishments or footrests, adjusting heights, or reusing old materials. Even tree-root pencil holders were used to create root wood furniture. In cases of insufficient materials, requests were made to Li Shengwu, who was then the Governor of Gansu. This underscores the value placed on root wood. It took a year to make these root wood furniture, showing the emperor's profound interest in their creation. For instance, in the twenty-seventh year of Qianlong’s reign, the tree-root throne in Nanchang Hall of the Jiexiu Mountain Villa was taken on for renovation. The Qianlong Emperor specifically named the skilled craftsman from Ruyi Hall, Huang Zhao and two Guangdong craftsmen to handle the modifications. In the twenty-ninth year of the Qianlong reign, Huang Zhaotong was tasked with making a series of three connected niches from tree-root. In the forty-seventh year of Qianlong’s reign, a directive was given to Huang Zhao and Qiu Zhongxin from the Ruyi Hall to transform a tree-root arhat bed and placed it in Rehe after completion. Huang Zhao was a craftsman from the Ruyi Hall sent by the Guangdong Customs Supervisor Shuo Se in the fourteenth year of the Qianlong's reign. Based on the records of his frequent involvement in the creation of tree-root thrones, he must be a master in this craft. Besides the Imperial Workshop, Suzhou also took on the production of root wood furniture. For instance, in the sixteenth year of the Qianlong’s reign, the chief of Suzhou Weaving Department Anning presented four tree-root thrones. In the seventeenth year of Qianlong’s reign, he delivered eighteen chairs. Apart from production, maintenance was also required for root wood furniture. In the eighteenth year of Qianlong’s reign, for example, the exposed parts of the tree-root high table in the Qianchixue Hall were ordered to repair with tree-root materials to achieve a natural look. The surfaces of root wood furniture were predominantly constructed with materials like Yunqiu wood and nanmu. For example, in the seventeenth year of Qianlong’s reign, the nanmu surface of the tree-root high table in the Qianchixue Hall was replaced with Yunqiu wood, reducing its length by six inches and width by three inches. Moreover, in the twenty-seventh year of Qianlong’s reign, there is a record of a tree-root throne from the Siyong Study being stained with the color of zitan wood. Within the category of zitan furniture, there were also carvings imitating the appearance of tree-roots. In the nineteenth year of Qianlong , Governor He Nian presented a zitan tree-root throne, zitan tree-root writing desk, and zitan tree-root chairs inlaid with ivory floral design. They were all furnishings simulating the effect of root wood with precious materials, further revealing the emperor's strong preference for such designs. The records also suggest that palace tree-root beds were often paired with snowflake brocade mattresses.

Root wood furniture was prominently displayed in imperial gardens, such as the Shuqing Hall in Yingtai, Fangsheng Pavilion, Qianchixue Hall, Biyun Temple in Fragrant Hills, Qingke Pavilion and Garden of Harmonious Interests (xieyuyuan) in the Summer Palace, Lianhua Room in the North Sea (Beihai), Siyong Study of the Old Summer Palace, Jiexiu Mountain Villa, Zhaokuang Pavilion in the Auspicious Elegance Hall (Yulinglongguan), Siyi Study in Anlan Garden, Fuwang Pavilion of the Palace of Tranquil Longevity (Shouninggong), and the Mountain Resort in Chengde.

This meditation chair is 82 cm wide, 73 cm deep and 80 cm high, with the shape similar to a chair with half-height backrest (zhebeiyang) or a horseshoe-back armchair (quanyi). Its main body is composed of four rattans, with an extremely curving and twisting structure: one strip of rattan forms the upper half of the top rail (danao), armrests and front legs; one forms the lower half of the top rail and hind legs; one is ringing around the chair face; and one connects the chair seat and the four legs; and the rest serves as a stretcher to hold the chair seat, which is a must for the structure of the chair. Then the meditation chair takes its shape. It seems complex, but is actually simple. When you appreciate the work, you find that it would never appear without wise thoughts, skillful hands and a good taste. The rattan components connected in parallel are reinforced with dowels; those intersected are connected with the mortise-and-tenon joints, as if they are integrated as a whole. If you do not watch it carefully, you might think it is made from only one curved strip of rattan. The rattan has gone through many years with shiny and smooth surface, reflecting the patina of age. The cracks and twisted branches are like calligraphy written by a half-dry brush; and the lively and sinuous shape are reminiscent of the wild cursive script of Zhang Xu and Huaisu (calligraphers in the Tang dynasty).

In addition to rattan, cypress root wood are used for making several components, such as front spandrels (jiaoya), arm support stick (liangbanggun), backrest and four-foot pads. They are made of cypress roots with smooth and jade-like patina. The component of the backrest is protruding like towering cliffs of porous Taihu stone, with grotesque and uneven rocks and holes like moon flying in the sky. Its upper and lower parts are also cleverly connected with the main body of the meditation chair through dowels and mortise-and-tenon joints. In general, for backrests of a root wood meditation chair and throne, the priority is given to imagery rather than comfort of use. This chair is not suitable for leaning on, so when one sits on it, he or she has to sit upright. Is it made intentionally for the purpose of reminding meditators of behaving with integrity and steadfast faith when being caught in a dilemma?

The seat board is crafted meticulously. Unlike the wild and stark main body of rattan, it combines elegance and wilderness, tenseness and relaxation, just like the way of regular script. It adopts the practice of assembling a mortised-and-tenoned frame with floating panel (zankuang) and rounded corner designs on the interior or exterior of edges; especially the large internal fillet, echoing the overall round shape. Made from cypress root wood, it is fine and smooth as skin. The seating board is decorated with bubujin-and-swastika-patterned patchwork veneer (bainaxiang). It is also made of cypress wood, probably select cypress burls, as the texture is fine and irregular. The decoration of diaper-patterned patchwork veneer is a craft popular in the court of the Qing dynasty, especially during the Qianlong’s reign. Although the technique of piecing and inlaying materials into various patterns could be found in ancient China and it is similar to the craft of one-hundred- precious-material inlay (baibaoqian) popular in the Ming dynasty, its origin is more likely to be influenced by the French "Boulle Marquetry". Boulle Marquetry is a technique mastered by Pierre Gole, a French court furniture artisan during Louis XIV, and influenced by Dutch joinery. From the 17th century to the beginning of the 18th century, both the Kangxi Emperor and Louis XIV were great monarchs in the East and West respectively. The two countries had frequent cultural, artistic and other exchanges, and sent each other gifts. Therefore, the court arts of both sides were affected mutually. Distinctive Western styles can be found in the shape, pattern and even technique of the Qing court furniture, which can be proved by records of the Qing Imperial Workshops on imitation and learning from Western instruments and patterns. Likewise, the three-curved-leg style in France in Louis XIV's reign is obviously influenced by Chinese furniture.

The reverse of the seating board is made of cypress wood, supported with two penetrating transverse braces (chuandai) of oval cross section. There is a yellow label on the baseplate, which reads "Huifang Academy" (huifang shuyuan) in regular script. Huifang Academy is included in the 40 views of the Old Summer Palace (Yuanmingyuan). The font is neat and beautiful, obviously written by a calligrapher who often engaged in recording and transcription. Among the survived Qing court furniture, it's very rare to see yellow label affixed for location. But there are also a few cases, such as a pair of gilt-incised (qiangjin) red lacquer "lotus and hornless dragon" painted shelving units (The Complete Collection of Ming and Qing Furniture in the Palace Museum · 14 · Shelving Cabinet Coffer Chest ) (No. 12, P. 98-113), with a yellow label of "shelving unit in the south of the second west room of Joyful Longevity Hall (Leshoutang)…" on the back of the door (Fig. 1-1, Fig. 1-2), and a pair of black lacquer "flower" painted treasure chests inlaid with mother-of-pearl (duobaoge) (The Complete Collection of Ming and Qing Furniture in the Palace Museum · 14 · Shelving Cabinet Coffer Chest ) (No. 33) with a yellow label of "Fragrant Garden Residence (Fangyuanju)", located in the Mountain Resort in Chengde. The yellow label can be seen on some low tables (Kangzhuo) and other small furniture. It is easy to speculate that when indoor furniture was moved for decoration needs, a yellow label was affixed to mark the original location for subsequent restoration or handling.

The shape of this chair is similar to the chair with half-height backrest or the horseshoe-back armchair. The so-called "chair with half-height backrest" was seen in Zixia Records - Holding Couch (chengchuang) by Li Kuangyi in the late Tang Dynasty. Images of the chair with half-height backrest can be seen in paintings and prints of the Song, Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Elegant Gathering of Song Literati by an anonymous artist of the Song dynasty (Fig. 2, housed in the National Palace Museum in Taipei), Reading in the Mountain Pavilion by Liu Songnian of the Song dynasty (housed in the Palace Museum in Beijing), Four Whiteheads of Mount Shang and Nine Respected Elders in Huichang by an anonymous artist of the Song dynasty, Arhats by an anonymous artist of the Song dynasty (housed in the National Palace Museum in Taipei), Illustration of "Illustrated Manual of Anup" by Wang Weiyi of the Song dynasty, (block-printed edition of Chen's family, the year of dading bingwu, the Jin Dynasty )(1186), Elegant Gathering in the Apricot Garden by Xie Huan in the Zhengtong reign of the Ming dynasty, Appreciating Antiquities in the Bamboo Garden (Fig. 3, housed in the Palace Museum in Beijing) by Qiu Ying of the Ming dynasty, Enjoying the Evening Cool at Xu Pavilion by Tang Yin of the Ming dynasty (housed in Sichuan Museum), and Eighteen Scholars of the Ming dynasty (housed in the National Palace Museum in Taipei). In general, three-side-open chairs were commonly seen in the Song and Yuan dynasties, then backrests were added in the Ming dynasty. However, the practice of aligning three sides of the armrests and backrest hadn’t changed. Most of them were used by sages and hermits. Unluckily, such chairs are very rare and only one or two ones have been handed down to the present time. This meditation chair can be regarded as a variant of the chair with half-height backrest, from which we can see the maker's manufacturing idea of learning from the ancients. From the image data, chairs with half-height backrests were widely used during the Song and Yuan dynasties, and in the Ming dynasty. In the Qing Dynasty, they mainly appeared in paintings depicting hermits, literati or monks, but were rarely seen in the secular world.

Root wood instruments are different from semi-processed natural objects during the Neolithic period. They are conscious choices by humans towards natural forms after getting away from the stage of simple utilization of natural objects and being able to make tools with exquisite craftsmanship. In their early stage, they might serve as tools to communicate with gods and nature, with a mysterious color and religious nature. Such furnishings can be seen in the system of low-seating furniture. With them, people could sit on the ground. The painted lacquer leaning table (pingji) (Fig. 4) unearthed from the Warring States Tomb No. 2 at Jiuliandun in Zaoyang, Hubei province was made from a randomly shaped branch. It has three branches as legs, and other two as beast heads, one long and one short, like a small beast walking with its head raised. Its unusual decoration is imbued with a strong mysterious color, causing people to imagine whether the strange beast is about to transform into a branch, or the branch is transforming into a strange beast. The method of making leaning tables with root wood lasted for more than 2,000 years almost without interruption, including Bai Juyi's "leaning table made of twisted trees". Such tables were still used in the Ming and Qing dynasties. As the Eight Treatises on Following the Principles of Life recorded, "The leaning table is made of twisted wood like half of a circular belt. It is peculiar to find the one with three branches as legs."

Since the Han, Wei, and Jin dynasties, influenced by the spirits of Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism, as well as self-cultivation through the appreciation of the nature, literati and scholars participated in politics and cared about the society while longing to immerse themselves in the beauty of mountains and rivers. It's the contradiction or transformation between the visible and the hidden in terms of self-discipline. When it turns to objects, it's the difference between the standardized and orderly ritual vessels and the wild and unconventional vessels. Instruments made of root wood embodied the essence of forests and springs, with an aesthetic emphasis placed on the appreciation of natural forms. As a result, whether in imperial court or secluded mountain villas, such instruments were in use, representing a pursuit of purity and the yearning for an ideal lifestyle.

From the Sui and Tang dynasties onwards, the low-seating furniture system of sitting with feet down on the ground gradually formed. Representative examples include stools derived from the rope couch and table structures derived from beam frameworks. In Buddhist and Taoist paintings, especially in those depicting Arhats, root wood furniture appeared more frequently. In Yan Liben's scroll painting Xiao Yi Wisely Getting the Calligraphy of Preface to the Orchid Pavilion from the Tang Dynasty (fig. 5) which passed down to today, the Zen master Biancai seated on a large meditation chair made of natural tree roots. From the imitation copies from the Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties I have seen, it can be seen that the root wood meditation chair is faithfully painted. This demonstrates the authenticity of its origin, suggesting that by the Tang Dynasty, this type of large-scale root wood furniture had already been in use. Even in paintings and prints from the Ming and Qing dynasties, Zen monks almost always seated on large meditation chairs made from root wood. It has almost become a "standard" depiction of Zen monks in this type of artwork, indicating its wide dissemination and significant influence. The meditation chair described herein is just one aspect of this broader context.

[1] (Tang) Li Kuangwen: "Zixia Records", Vol. B Chairs, P. 207-208, Romance of Su: Three Miscellaneous, Series of Historical Materials Notes of the Tang and Song Dynasties, Zhonghua Book Company, 2012.

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一例有趣的清代藤製天然木禪椅

禪椅以天台藤為之，或得古樹根，如虯龍詰曲臃腫，槎枒四出，可掛瓢笠及數珠、瓶、缽等器，更須瑩滑如玉，不露斧斤為佳。

——明 文震亨《長物志》卷六「几榻」

香林古寺有籐椅，天然結構何玲瓏。

蹲踞伏地穩如象，天矯行天蟠若龍。

兩旁槎枒中廓落，十圍腰腹應能容。

聞是前明禁中物，舍歸梵剎垂無窮。

臣民睥睨不敢坐，玉皇捧處雲生紅。

護持頗得法王力，厚載門側僧撞鐘。

兵火之厄竟能避，禪床四大空非空。

金剛有身同不壞，我來欲設香花供。

——清陳作霖《香林寺大籐椅歌》

天然木，是一種泛稱，不拘樹種，以自然屈曲變化、形狀萬物的樹根（或樹杈）為材，或獨立成器，或通過鋸解、雕鑿后拼接成器，以不露斧斤為上，渾然一體，宛若自然生成。 常見的材質有柏木或榆木根瘤、紫薇木等，此例甚為特殊，為藤製，野逸之氣更加濃厚。

禪椅寬82釐米、深73釐米、高80釐米，造型介於折背樣和圈椅之間，主體由四根藤組成，極盡迴環盤繞之能事：其搭腦上半、扶手、前腿為一根，搭腦下半、後腿為一根，椅面邊緣一週一根，下盤連接座面與四足者一根，餘則前方另設一藤為棖，托住座面，為結構之必須，基本上整個禪椅已經成形。 看似複雜，實則簡單，然後細細品味，非有哲思、巧手，非有高潔品味，不能為此。 藤質構件之間，相並處以銷釘加固，交錯處以插接的榫卯相連，貴其製作宛如一體，倘若不仔細觀看，還以為是一根藤屈曲生長而成。 其所用藤，不知有多少歲月，包漿瑩潤，皮殼油亮如漆，兼有皴裂，配合絞轉的枝幹，如同書法的飛白，而其顛倒迴環、欲去還留之形態，與張旭、懷素筆下奇詭的草書，頗有相通之處。

藤製之外，另有幾個構件由柏木天然木製成，為前方角牙、聯幫棍、靠背及四足墊。 選取柏木根瘤，包漿瑩潤如玉。 其靠背處突兀一塊，岩巒四出，窪隆起伏，遍佈褶皺嵌空，又有陂陀拽腳、山崖掛月，頗似一塊雄偉的太湖石立峰。 上下方亦巧妙地通過銷釘、插接等榫卯方式與禪椅主體相連。 一般天然木所製禪椅、寶座等靠背，多以意向為先，有時會忽視使用時的舒適性，此椅甚至是不便倚靠，坐於其上，不得不正襟危坐，莫不是故意為此？ 提醒參禪打坐者，若處深山懸崖、進退維谷之景，只有守身立正、心如止水，才得方便。

座面做法細緻工整，一絲不苟，與藤質主體野逸風格不同，宛若楷書，文野相合，張弛之道。 採用攢框做法，內外圓角，尤其是內圓角甚大，與整體圓轉造型有呼應之處。 柏木質，細膩光潔如肌膚。 其內落膛，百納鑲步步錦套卍字紋為座面，亦為柏木，紋路細膩扭結，應是特意選用柏木瘿瘤部分製成。 百納鑲錦地紋裝飾手法是清代宮廷尤其是乾隆時期慣用的一種工藝，這種拼嵌材料以成圖案的手法，雖然在中國古代亦可找到蹤跡，明代時興起的百寶嵌工藝亦與之有相近處，但其源流，更有可能受法國「布爾式鑲嵌」（Boulle Marquetry）鑲嵌工藝影響。 布爾式鑲嵌是法國路易十四時宮廷傢俱師Pierre Gole所擅，源頭應是受荷蘭細木工的影響。 17世紀至18世紀初，康熙皇帝與路易十四各為東西方的偉大君主，兩國在文化、藝術等方面交流頗多，並曾互贈禮物，雙方的宮廷藝術受到對方的一定影響，清代宮廷傢俱的造型、圖案乃至工藝，有一些確實可以找到明顯的西洋風格，清宮造辦處有關仿製和借鑒西洋器具、紋飾的記載亦可佐證，而法國諸如路易十四時期的三彎腿造型等，又顯然有中國傢俱的影子。

座屜底以柏木為托板，附兩根橢圓截面的穿帶。 底板上貼有黃簽，楷書「匯芳書院」四字，圓明園四十景有匯芳書院。 字體秀麗工整，顯然是經常從事記錄、謄抄的擅書者筆跡。 清宮遺存傢俱中，貼黃簽標識方位的做法非常罕見，但也見有數例，如紅漆彩繪戧金纏枝蓮螭龍紋架格一對（《故宮博物院藏明清傢俱全集·14·格櫃櫥箱》件12，第98-113頁），櫃門後貼有「樂壽堂西次間南邊櫃子......」 黃簽（圖1-1、1-2），黑漆螺鈿彩繪花卉紋多寶格一對（《故宮博物院藏明清傢俱全集·14·格櫃櫥箱》件33），貼「芳園居」黃簽，芳園居位為承德避暑山莊。 其他一些炕桌等小型傢俱上亦見有貼黃簽者。 不難推測，其原因當是因為裝修等需求，挪移室內傢俱，貼黃簽標識原有位置，以滿足復原或管理之需。

此椅的造型，介於折背樣椅和圈椅之間。 所謂折背樣椅，見於晚唐李匡乂《資暇集》「承床」：

近者繩床，皆短其倚衡，曰『折背樣』。 言高不過背之半，倚必將仰，脊不遑縱。 亦由中貴人創意也。 蓋防至尊賜坐，雖居私第，不敢傲逸其體，常習恭敬之儀。 士人家不窮其意，往往取樣而製，不亦乖乎。[1]

明代的折背樣又有高士椅之稱，《留青日札》載：「今之高士椅，即古之繩床，所謂折背樣者是也。 」

折背樣椅的形象在宋元明時期繪畫、版畫中可以見到，如宋佚名《宋人雅集圖》（圖2 台北故宮博物院藏）、宋劉松年《山館讀書圖》 （故宮博物院藏）、宋佚名《商山四皓會昌九老圖》、宋佚名《羅漢圖》（台北故宮博物院藏）、宋王惟一《新刊補注銅人腧穴針灸圖經》插圖（金大定丙午（1186年）陳氏刻本）、明正統謝環《杏園雅集圖》、明仇英《竹林品古圖》（圖3 故宮博物院藏）、明唐寅《虛閣圖晚涼圖》（四川博物院藏）、明佚名《十八學士圖》（台北故宮博物院藏）等，大體來說， 宋元多三面敞空，明代則多增設靠背，但扶手、靠背三面平齊的做法未曾改變，其出現的場所，則多是先賢、高士所用，惜這種造型的椅具，傳世甚為罕見，所見僅一二例而已，此禪椅不妨視之為折背樣的一種變體，亦可見製者慕古而化的成器思想。 從圖像資料看，折背樣椅在宋至元時使用較廣，明代延續，清代所見者零星，多出現在表現高士、文人、僧侶等主題的繪畫中，並非世俗所習見。

天然木器具與新石器時期半加工的自然物不同，是人類在擺脫簡單利用自然物階段，可以精細加工器具后，對自然形態有意識的選擇。 早期或偏向於溝通神靈、自然的道具，具有神秘色彩，有一定的宗教性。 傢俱實例而言，在席地而坐的低型傢俱體系中已有所見。 湖北棗陽九連墩2號戰國墓出土一件彩繪漆憑几（圖4），便是以一段隨形枝杈製成，以三枝為足，歧出一長一短獸頭，宛若一個昂頭行走的小獸。 其怪異的裝飾附著了濃厚的神秘色彩，不知是異獸要幻化為樹枝，還是樹枝正在幻化為異獸。 這種天然木為憑几的做法，綿延兩千余年，幾未中斷，包括白居易的「蟠木几」，明清時尚有使用，《遵生八笺》：「隱几，以怪樹天生屈曲。 若環帶之半者，為之。 有橫生三丫作足為奇。 」

漢魏晉以來，經歷釋儒道精神的浸潤，加以山水對人們性靈的陶冶，文人士大夫一邊躋身朝堂，心懷天下; 另一邊又嚮往縱情山水、徜徉其間的悠悠之情，從治身來講是顯與隱的矛盾或轉化，映射於器物，則是整齊劃一、井然有序的鼎彝之器與放任天性、隨性而為的野逸之器的區別。 以天然木製作的器具，存林泉之致，對自然形態的欣賞成為其審美內涵，故自此，無論廟堂之中，還是山林別苑，均有所用，亦是標榜清高，東籬之想的寄託。

隋唐以降，垂足而坐的低型傢俱體系漸而確立，其中以自繩床發展而來的椅具和自梁架結構發來的桌形結構最為代表。 在佛道畫尤其是羅漢畫中，開始較多出現天然木傢俱。 今傳唐閻立本《蕭翼賺蘭亭序》圖卷中（圖5），辯才禪師便坐在一個天然樹根製成大禪椅上，所見此畫宋、元、明、清數個摹本，皆忠實繪製天然木大禪椅，可見所來有自，至遲在唐代這種天然木大型傢俱已得應用。 甚至明清時期繪畫和版畫中的禪僧形象，無不以端坐天然木大禪椅為多見，近乎成了此類圖畫中禪僧的「標配」，可見傳播之廣，影響自然也大。 而本文所述禪椅，自是其餘緒。

明代尤其是明代嘉萬時期，是中國高型傢俱體系的高峰，結構、造型科學合理，工藝精湛，兼備藝術性與實用型，天然木這種跳出常規傢俱範疇的「逸品」，甚受文人青睞，高濂記隱幾時，還提到友人吳破瓢有一几，「樹形皺皮，花細屈曲，奇怪三足，天然摩弄瑩滑，疑若黃玉。 此老攜以遨遊，珍稀若寶」。 吳破瓢即吳孺人，字少君，號破瓢道人、懶和尚、玄鐵、元鐵道人、赤松山道士，浙江金華人，嘉、萬時人，與高濂、李日華、董其昌、陳繼儒、汪砢玉、沈明臣等江南文士過往甚密，手巧，擅以瘿木為器，「擁曲木几，摩樹根爐」。 沈明臣作《吳少君寓浮夢館寄以絕句二首》有「天然木几堪憑嘯，勝跨仙人赤玉虯」句，並注吳孺人「每以銅鐺、天然几、萬歲藤杖自隨」，儼然一個對樹根瘿瘤器具嗜好入骨的方外形象。 此外，文震亨《長物志》還記天然几有「以古樹根承之」者，汪砢玉《珊瑚網》記義興吳二甫舟中「有古樹根天然榻，奇怪瑩潔，真山房珍異」，以至於這位書畫收藏家感歎： 「惜不隨畫作媵，殊怏怏也。 」這些均可見天然木傢俱在江南文人群體中的廣泛應用。

在明人顧起元《客座贅語》中記錄了其人嚴賓，就是使用天然藤傢俱的高士：

嚴賓，字子寅，號鶴丘，正嘉中為府學博士弟子，以羣閧點齋台史，褫革之，字法米帖，粗能詩，及畫蘭竹，所畜古法書名畫頗多，有藤床藤椅，皆藤所成，不加寸木，又有棗根香几，天然為之，不煩鑿削，最稱奇品。 精於煑茶，茶具皆佳妙，文人墨客多與之遊，徃來東橋、衡山諸公之門......

明代天然木實例，以天然木流雲槎最為傳奇，今存故宮博物院，以天然樹根製成，碩大無朋，長約320釐米，寬約257釐米，通高約86.5釐米，上有明代書法家趙宧光「流雲」二個篆字，又有董其昌、陳繼儒、阮元、半園主人、完顏衡永題跋。 傳明代狀元康海曾寓居揚州，建康山草堂，流雲槎即草堂中物，清代時江鶴亭以千金購之，乾隆下江南，曾在揚州瘦西見到此物，並賦詩《趣園》：「偶涉亦成趣，居然水竹鄉。 因之道彭澤，從此擅維揚，目屬高低石，步延曲折廊。 流雲憑木榻。 喜早晤宧光。 」並注「亭中木榻甚古樸，刻趙宧光題流雲二字及董其昌、陳繼儒題語，雖屬偽作，頗愜幽賞」。 喜愛之情可見一斑。 其後完顏麟慶與阮元遊歷故地，於塵土中發現古樹根，隱有字跡，「拂而滌之以水，果流雲也」，阮元購回修整，贈予麟慶，麟慶《鴻雪因緣記》詳記其事，並附有圖畫，其中《康山拂槎》《煥文寫像》兩記的版畫中，皆有所繪，此書版畫原有紙本彩繪冊頁，今藏國家博物館，《 煥文寫像》一圖繪製精細，是流雲槎傳神彩色寫照。

天然木器具既得文人青睞，也更受清代帝王喜愛，如前所述，乾隆曾為流雲槎賦詩，而清宮造辦處關於天然木傢俱製作、修理、進奉、陳設、貯存檔案頗多。 實例存寶座、羅漢床、畫桌、琴几、圓几、扶手椅等，成堂成套，多為雍正、乾隆時物。 此外，宮廷繪畫中，天然木傢俱也頻有所見，如《胤禛妃行樂圖》中所見天然木香几、天然木榻。

造辦處製作天然木傢俱，可舉乾隆十六年廣木作（五月）記載最為典型：

「二十六日員外郎白世秀催總德魁來說，太監胡世傑交廣榔木寶座床一座（隨紫檀足踏黃雨缎坐褥一件，紅猩猩毡夾墊一件，毡一塊），天然寶座一座，羅漢寶座一座，英雄香几一件，天然元香几二件，長方小桌一張，黑漆石面元繡墩二件，傳旨：將寶座床上扶手靠背去了，眼補平，天然寶座上二層痰盂托亦不要，天然元香几二件照樣添面子改繡墩四件， 其餘羅漢寶座等俱各收拾好呈進，欽此。

於六月初十日員外郎白世秀催總德魁來說太監胡世傑交樹根筆筒一件（隨木座）傳旨：做繡墩用，欽此。

於九月十二日員外郎白世秀達子將樹根廣榔木寶座一座，天然樹根寶座一座，樹根羅漢寶座一座，沉香英雄香几一件，雲秋木面樹根長方小桌一張，天然元香几一件（改得四件坯）俱持進交太監胡世傑呈□雲秋木長方高桌一張，奉旨：天然□几照樹根桌子樣做小繡墩四件，本來面子如用得即用，如用不得照桌子面用雲秋木做，雲秋木高桌亦照樹根長方桌改做高桌一張， 將廣榔寶座改做杌□四件，其餘寶座、香几俱粘補齊全，再寶座、杌子、繡墩著各配做青缎、坐褥、墊子、葛布套，欽此。

於九月二十日員外郎白世秀、達子將天然元香几二件改做繡墩四件，並收拾好樹根寶座三座，持進交太監胡世傑呈覽，奉旨：俱各著落堂□其繡墩上添補楠木面板，欽此。

於九月十二日員外郎白世秀來說，太監胡世傑傳旨：將交岀廣榔木寶座不必改做杌子，著做竹爐山房床掛□一塊，欽此。

於九月二十二日員外郎白世秀將改做得天然樹根繡墩，面上落堂添楠木板，持進交太監胡世傑，呈覽，奉旨：圈口要改隨形，褥子亦隨形配做，再照樣做繡墩四件，欽此。

於十月初五日員外郎白世秀將做得□樹根繡墩□持進，交太監胡世傑呈覽，奉旨：□另做雪花錦墊，其樹根寶座等亦俱做雪花錦褥□

於十七年正月二十八日員外郎白世秀將做得樹根高桌一張，樹根繡墩四件（隨雪花錦墊）持進交太監胡世傑呈覽，奉旨：將樹根高桌繡墩並收拾寶座俱在瀛䑓清院安，將□繡墩高桌剩下的樹根再做繡墩四件，如不足用在內尋找成做，欽此。

於十七年二月初五日四等侍衛永□進樹根香几一件（隨樹根四塊），持進交太監胡世傑呈覽，奉旨：造辦處改做繡墩四件，其剩下的樹根成做寶座一座，嗣後有用樹根之活計，著行文向李繩武要用，欽此。

於十七年二月十二日員外郎白世秀將□樹根寶座二件（隨雪花錦墊、葛布套）

歪形樹根寶座一件，並圖拉呈進樹根寶座三□（隨繡黃缎、褥子）持進交太監胡世傑呈覽，奉旨：將歪形寶座改做繡墩，其先交岀改做繡墩剩下之樹根桌□拉呈進寶座上子上配做□錦套書清院用，換下寶座俱各收著，俟有地方再用，欽此（於十七年二月十三日栢唐阿□鑒將□根寶座一座，隨墊繡墩四件，高桌一張送往瀛䑓書清院安訖）。

於十七年三月二十日員外郎白世秀將□清院撤出樹根寶座、高桌、繡墩並造辦處現做繡墩、寶座，圖拉呈進寶座，俱持進交太監胡世傑呈覽，奉旨：歪形寶座不必改繡墩，改做椅子一張，腿子放高□玲瓏後背，欽此。」

此條檔案，既有樹根廣榔木寶座床、天然木寶座、天然木羅漢寶座、天然圓香几、雲楸木天然木長方桌的修改或改做，又有天然木繡墩、天然木椅子的製作，或去扶手、靠背，或添面子，或落膛，或增高，材料還有舊料改製者，甚至樹根筆筒都被拿來製作天然木傢俱，不足的材料則向時任甘肅提督的李勝武討要，可見對天然木的珍視。 製作前後跨時一年，帝王於天然木傢俱製作的關心顯而易見。 再如乾隆二十七年，接秀山房南昌廳樹根寶座，皇帝點名如意館牙匠黃兆同兩名廣木匠前往改造。 乾隆二十九年傳旨著黃兆承做樹根連三龕。 乾隆四十七年又欽命如意館黃兆、仇忠信改做一件樹根羅漢床，得時安防在熱河。 黃兆是如意館牙匠，乾隆十四年由粵海關監督碩色送來，從頻頻參與樹根寶座的記錄看，亦是善於此道的名手了。 造辦處之外，蘇州也承擔天然木傢俱的製作，如蘇州織造安寧於乾隆十六年送到樹根寶座四座，乾隆十七年送到椅子十八張。 除了製作，天然木傢俱亦需日常的維護，如乾隆十八年千尺雪樹根桌子有露木頭的地方，則令人用樹根補輟，以求自然。 天然木傢俱的面，則多用雲楸木、楠木等製，如乾隆十七年將千尺雪所陳樹根高桌楠木面換雲楸木，長去六寸，寬去三寸。 此外乾隆二十七年還有將思永齋樹根寶座打紫檀木色的記載。 紫檀製傢俱中，亦有雕作樹根式的，乾隆十九年巡撫鶴年進紫檀樹根寶座、紫檀樹根御案紫檀鑲牙絲花卉圍紫檀樹根椅，均是以珍貴材料類比天然木效果，亦側面可見帝王對之青睞程度。 檔案所記，宮廷天然木床座則多配以雪花錦褥子。

天然木傢俱在宮廷的陳設地，以別苑為多，如瀛台的淑清院、方勝樓、千尺雪，香山碧雲寺，頤和園清可軒、諧趣園，北海的蓮華室，圓明園的思永齋、接秀山房、玉玲瓏館昭曠亭、安瀾園四宜書屋，內廷的寧壽宮符望閣，以及承德避暑山莊等。

[1] （唐）李匡文：《資暇集》卷下《承床》，頁207、208，《蘇氏演義：外三種》，輯入《唐宋史料筆記叢刊》，中華書局，2012年。