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H istory tells us that since time immemorial the world’s great civilisations have advanced by borrowing and learning from one another. Whether through war and invasion, or commerce and trade, progress in science and technology, language and art rarely happens in isolation. The Romans cultivated literature, theatre and mythology borrowing from the Greeks; Indian architecture demonstrates influences that can be traced to Persia; and connections between the short-lived Egyptian monotheistic cult of Aten and the Hebrew bible are widely speculated. All around the world, human progress is enriched by cross-cultural exchanges and certainly China is no exception. Exchanges with neighbouring Japan, Korea, and the Middle East aside, China and Europe saw cross-influences encompassing fields as wide-ranging as cartography, medicine, mathematics, and architecture. In art, the art historical canon is rich with examples of mutual curiosity and fascination between China and Europe that expanded the arts, from painting and enameling, to glassmaking, printmaking, and more.
"Culture,…is made not only from the resources of one community but also from encounters with other cultures.”
China in the 15th century was among the world’s most advanced countries, already bearing an extensive history of travel, trade and exchange. Famously, under the command of the revered Chinese admiral Zheng He (1371-1433/1435), the Chinese Empire was viewed as a great global power with unmatched maritime strength. By order of the Yongle Emperor (r.1402-1424), the third emperor of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), Zheng helmed six naval expeditions, commanding the largest fleets in the world at the time. These expeditions, according to ancient legends, followed routes that took Zheng across the South Pacific and Indian Oceans, as far as the Arabian Peninsula and East Africa, not for conquest, but for trade and tribute – a demonstration of China’s might and dominance.
All this changed with the reign of the Xuande Emperor (r.1425-1435) who enacted an edict of haijin (literally, ‘sea ban’) to come into effect in 1434. Under the order of the Xuande Emperor, Zheng’s seventh and final voyage ended in about 1433. These great vessels were left to rot, all interaction with the outside world ceased, and three hundred years of Chinese dominance of East Asian seas came to an end. Some scholars have suggested trade restrictions began to relax by the late-15th century, and by the early 17th century, under the Wanli Emperor (r.1573-1620), exchange with European missionaries ushered China into a new global order, flourishing under greatly expanded travel and trade routes. Chinese artefacts were at the time garnering immense attention in European courts, while missionaries arriving from England, Italy, France and across Europe paid tribute to the Chinese Imperial court with lavish gifts.
The 17th and 18th centuries – a time that saw China deeply integrated with the West through trade and cultural contact – was a prosperous era for the Chinese Imperial court. The Forbidden City was not only the centre of governance but also for the science and arts, and a stage for global exchange. During this time, all missionaries entering China had but a singular purpose: to spread Christianity. The many gifts they brought were to gain favour with the Chinese court.
The Wanli Emperor held a keen curiosity for decorative chiming clocks, so much so that when the Italian Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci (1552-1610) was at last invited to enter the Forbidden City in 1601, he brought with him two chiming clocks as tribute gifts to the Wanli Emperor. Ricci became the first European to step foot into the Forbidden City and advised the emperor on matters of calendrical science and astronomy. Having mastered the Chinese language, Ricci emphasised parallels between Confucianism and Christianity; his influence includes translating Confucian classic texts into Latin, and working with Chinese elite astronomer and mathematician Xu Guangqi on the translation of the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid’s mathematical treatise Elements into Chinese.
Clocks and timepieces from this period and through the subsequent Qing dynasty – whether made by European clockmakers or locally by artisans in Guangzhou workshops – are truly a demonstration of modernisation. So important were clocks and timepieces such that the Qing Imperial court had a clock workshop with about 100 craftsmen responsible for the manufacture and repair of the pieces, supervised by the missionary craftsmen.
The science and technology of Europe found great appeal in the Chinese Imperial court, bilateral relations strengthened under Qing rule, and the court began commissioning items from the West, sending manufacturing requests through foreign merchants in Guangzhou. Concurrently, the study of Chinese culture and Confucianism found favour in the West, inspiring thinkers such as those of the French Enlightenment.
Headlining Sotheby’s Hong Kong Important Watches I this season were several magnificent clocks that once belonged to the Qing Imperial collection and later held in the renowned collection of the Nezu Museum in Japan for nearly seven decades.
Made by both Chinese craftsman in the Guangzhou workshops and important European clockmakers from England and Switzerland, the clocks are characterised by their striking enamel decoration, glittering gems and exquisite craftsmanship. Not only do these clocks display the month, date, and hour, they possess beautiful, hypnotic mechanical movements and some even play beautiful tunes.
During the Qianlong period, such clocks were often presented by Guangdong officials as gifts to the Qing court. The Qianlong Emperor (r. 1736-1795) was an avid collector of antiques and a foremost patron of the arts. During his reign, Western timepieces flourished in popularity, becoming sought after even beyond the Imperial court, treasured by higher officials, wealthy scholars and merchants.
Such magnificent creations – demonstrative of Western technological advancement – became an important way for China to understand the West, and a crucial gift for establishing diplomatic relations. But clocks were not the only item that captured the fascination of Chinese emperors; in the arts, Western painting techniques and enamel recipes were introduced into the Imperial court through many European missionary painters.
The Kangxi Emperor (r.1662-1722), the second ruler under the Qing – possessed a deep political acumen and was deeply interested in Western science. He applied himself diligently to the study of astronomy, mathematics and science. Concurrently, the Kangxi Emperor embraced the vast creative possibilities that European artisans could bring to the palace workshops of the Forbidden City.
Porcelain wares were produced in Jingdezhen and transported to the palace workshops where court painters worked under the supervision of missionary artisans who introduced European techniques. Falangcai – translating to ‘foreign colours’ – was one such imported style of enameling on porcelain, glass and copper that left an indelible mark on Chinese Imperial porcelain. Revolutionary both stylistically and technically for its beautiful and varied range of intense colours, the early falangcai works used raw enamel materials brought over from Europe, only soon after the enamels began to be locally produced.
Take as an example, the present enameled ruby-ground falangcai ‘floral’ bowl offered this season in Chinese Art, which has a storied past belonging to the collection of the Carnegie Museum of Art in Pittsburgh. Speculatively, the bowl may be among the first successful outcomes experimenting with the technique known as Purple of Cassius – thus marking the introduction of the superb, subtle ruby-red berry “purple-gold” in Chinese ceramics.
Chinese court painting also benefited from the presence of European missionaries working in the palace workshops. The presence of the Italian Jesuit Giuseppe Castiglione (1688-1766), who took the name Lang Shining, worked as a court painter under all three emperors – Kangxi, his son Yongzheng, and Qianlong. Castiglione adapted his European painting style to Chinese themes and taste and due to his influence, the Qing Imperial court paintings began to reflect such Western technical and stylistic influences. His skill as an artist was particularly appreciated by the Qianlong Emperor, whom Castiglione served for three decades. An fervent lover of the arts, the Qianlong Emperor built upon the cultural accomplishments of his grandfather and father, recruiting only the most talented artists and artisans to his court, setting the course for Chinese art to reach great creative heights.
